Fault Detection Effectiveness of Metamorphic Relations Developed for Testing Supervised Classifiers

In machine learning, supervised classifiers are used to obtain predictions for unlabeled data by inferring prediction functions using labeled data. Supervised classifiers are widely applied in domains such as computational biology, computational physics and healthcare to make critical decisions. However, it is often hard to test supervised classifiers since the expected answers are unknown. This is commonly known as the \emph{oracle problem} and metamorphic testing (MT) has been used to test such programs. In MT, metamorphic relations (MRs) are developed from intrinsic characteristics of the software under test (SUT). These MRs are used to generate test data and to verify the correctness of the test results without the presence of a test oracle. Effectiveness of MT heavily depends on the MRs used for testing. In this paper we have conducted an extensive empirical study to evaluate the fault detection effectiveness of MRs that have been used in multiple previous studies to test supervised classifiers. Our study uses a total of 709 reachable mutants generated by multiple mutation engines and uses data sets with varying characteristics to test the SUT. Our results reveal that only 14.8\% of these mutants are detected using the MRs and that the fault detection effectiveness of these MRs do not scale with the increased number of mutants when compared to what was reported in previous studies.Comment: 8 pages, AITesting 201

Improving The Effectiveness of Automatically Generated Test Suites Using Metamorphic Testing

Automated test generation has helped to reduce the cost of software testing. However, developing effective test oracles for these automatically generated test inputs is a challenging task. Therefore, most automated test generation tools use trivial oracles that reduce the fault detection effectiveness of these automatically generated test cases. In this work, we provide results of an empirical study showing that utilizing metamorphic relations can increase the fault detection effectiveness of automatically generated test cases.Comment: 2 pages, ICSEW'2

Evaluation of Ferritin and Nitric Oxide Levels in Breast Cancer

Breast carcinoma is one of the commonest malignancies in females. It is curable, if detected, at an early stage. Levels of serum ferritin and nitric oxide are found raised in various cancers including breast carcinoma. These parameters are sufficiently interlinked to be used as markers for breast cancer. In this study, the levels of ferritin and nitric oxide were estimated in 30 patients of early stage (stage I and II) and 30 patients of advanced breast cancer (stge III and IV). These levels were compared with 30 healthy females as controls. Serum ferritin and nitric oxide were found to be raised (p0.001) in all breast cancer patients as compared to controls. The rise in their levels was significantly more in advanced stage as compared to early stage carcinoma (p0.001). Treatment had a curative effect on these parameters also as shown by a decrease in their levels in both the groups. Thus, estimation of ferritin and nitric oxide may aid in diagnosis, assessment of severity and monitoring of breast cancer patients though results will be highly reliable in conjunction with other tumor markers

Ameliorative effect of apple cider vinegar and p-coumaric acid combination in Ex ovo antimicrobial and in vivo wound healing models

Background: Apple cider vinegar (ACV) is most commonly used in sweet and sour Chinese cuisine. This study aimed to overcome the side effects of raw ACV, by increasing the concentration of p-Coumaric acid (p-CA), a polyphenolic component of ACV. The combination (diluted ACV with p-CA) has also been compared with individual raw ACV and p-CA to confirm if the overall dosage of the ACV can be reduced to avoid side effects and if the combination therapy had any better effect than the individual component itself. Objective: To evaluate and compare antioxidant, antimicrobial, and wound healing effects of ACV and p-CA combination with individual components ACV and p-CA. Methods: The antimicrobial properties of the samples were assessed by determining the Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) using the broth microdilution method, and zone of inhibition (ZOI) and an ex ovo study was also done to evaluate the antimicrobial effect of the samples in live embryo. For the evaluation of the test samples excision wound was created in Swiss male albino mice weighing 25–30 g of either sex to estimate parameters like wound contraction rate, WBC and platelet count, SOD and GSH levels. Histopathological analysis of the skin was also done. Result: In DPPH and ABTS antioxidant assays, the combined sample (ACV + p-CA) had lower IC50. The combination therapy also showed the best antimicrobial potential against P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis. In this context, ex-ovo antimicrobial study results showed that diluted ACV + p-CA treated live embryo samples had the least bacterial growth after 48 h, in comparison with non-treatment group as well as individually ACV and p-CA treated samples. In vivo study depicted that the highest dose of the combination test sample had the best wound contraction rate and antioxidant marker enzymes elevation compared to diseased control proving the potency to restore the wound healing progression. Conclusion: ACV and p-CA combination can be used with daily intake as this combination can prevent microbial contamination and oxidative stress additionally can repair wounds more safely than raw ACV

Influence of Chain Length and Concentration-Dependent Morphological Switching on Oxidation of Aromatic Alcohols in a Micellar Environment

Catalytic oxidation of benzyl alcohol (BA), p-chlorobenzyl alcohol (p-ClBA) and p-anisyl alcohol (p-OMeBA) in aqueous media has been investigated in the presence of two cationic surfactants, viz. cetylpyridinium chloride (CPCl) and dodecylpyridinium chloride (DPCl). The chromium(VI)-governed oxidations of such aromatic compounds exhibit an unusual kinetics depending upon the concentration of CPCl and DPCl. Both the cationic surfactants catalyzed the oxidations at lower concentrations while retardation was noticed at higher concentrations. The catalytic and inhibitory functions of both the surfactants at the sub- and postmicellar levels have been enlightened based on the kinetic CMC (critical micellization concentration). The chain length of the two surfactants influences the kinetic profiles of the oxidation processes. Herein, the π–π interaction and the cation−π interaction play important roles in the solubilization process and therefore encourage the reaction rate. These strong interactions result in a maximum 12-fold catalytic enhancement for the oxidation of p-anisyl alcohol in the CPCl micellar environment, while the inhibitory effect of CPCl and DPCl on the oxidation kinetics have been analyzed based on the dilution effect. The morphological alteration of aggregates during the oxidation aids the interpretation of the inhibitory activity of both micelles produced by CPCl and/or DPCl. Berezin’s model has been employed to reveal the inhibition caused by cationic micelles. Morphological alteration of both the cationic surfactants from spherical-to-cylindrical shape at variable concentrations in the absence and presence of substrate was supported by SAXS (small-angle X-ray scattering), TEM (transmission electron microscopy), and FE-SEM (field emission scanning electron microscopy) analysis